What to Do With Short Stories

What to Do With Short Stories Recently I received a simple email from a reader who stated she wrote mostly short stories, and she had no clue what to do with them. She felt the day of the short story was over, and that hers had no chance of being published. She also asked how to make any money with them. These days, short writing is often interpreted as free to read, and she wanted to make a dollar or two from her effort. I understood her frustration and desire. Immediately, I asked her how many publications did she buy each year that catered to the short story. She could count them on one hand. You can guess my response to that. If shes not supporting the short story market, how can she expect to make money from it? Same goes for poetry, mysteries, sci-fi and the rest. {Okay, rant over.) From there, I suggested the following methods to earning income from short stories: 1) Contests In case you are new to FundsforWriters, I post many contests, and only those that pay $200 or more. Short story competitions are popular in the contest world. They usually charge entry fees, which are used to fund the prize money and cover expenses of judges and online promotion. Try to work one a month into your regimen. Contests are no different from submitting to editors. You risk rejection, but you also play the odds of being discovered and published in addition to putting a few dollars in your pocket. 2) Self-pub shorts on Amazon Self-publishing isnt just for novels or how-to books. Whats great these days is that you can sell ebooks, e-shorts, or chapbooks online, regardless of word count. Your short might not make more than 99 cents, but its read, and youre on your way as a short story author. 3) Magazines and anthologies These calls for submissions dont holler loud, so youll need to pay attention to venues like FundsforWriters to find them. Of course you need to sign up for FundsforWriters, and preferably TOTAL FundsforWriters as well. (See https://fundsforwriters.com/total-subscription-special/ But here are some markets to help your efforts: http://thewritelife.com/where-to-submit-short-stories/ amazon.com/Novel-Short-Story-Writers-Market/dp/159963841X/fundsforwriters sfwa.org/category/information-center/advice-for-new-writers/where-to-submit/ http://thereviewreview.net/publishing-tips/show-me-literary-magazines-pay 4) Crowdfunding Do you have a short story project in mind? Pitch it in a crowdfunding campaign at Kickstarter.com , Indiegogo.com , Pubslush.com , Unbound.co.uk or any of two dozen others. These are the most common and reliable for authors. Study the successful campaigns and learn from the masters. Earn money for your project and build a following at the same time. Short people rock!

Free Essays on Jesus’ Practices In The Business World

One might think that it would almost be impossible to follow Jesus’ practices in this day and age. There couldn’t possibly be anything that Jesus taught over 2,000 years ago that could be applied in the business world. This is untrue. There are several aspects of Jesus’ teaching that are very applicable in these modern times. We will examine three separate chapters from one of Charles C. Manz’s books, â€Å"The Leadership Wisdom of Jesus: Practical Lessons for Today†, and see how they can be used in everyday business. The first is â€Å"Logs Before Specks, or Lead Thyself First†. The following passage was an important lesson Jesus was trying to teach his followers on how to look within themselves and not judge others before we judge ourselves. â€Å"Do not judge, or you too will be judged? For in the same way you judge other, you will be judged, and with the measure you use, it will be measured to you. Why do you look at the speck of sawdust in your brother’s eye and pay no attention to the plank in your own eye? How can you say to your brother, ‘Let me take that speck out of your eye,’ when all the time there is a plank in your eye? You hypocrite, first take the plank out of your own eye, and then you will see clearly to remove the speck from your brother’s eye†. (Matthew 7:1-5; New International Version). Often times we try to point out other’s shortcomings, their sawdust, when we ourselves have much larger problems, the planks. We are bli nded by the gratification by tearing down others and showing them their problems, when oftentimes our own lives are in dire need of examination. Once we have removed the planks-or problems-from our own lives we can effectively help other’s solve their own problems in a caring and compassionate way. We help facilitate others to find the answers they were looking for by modeling to them that we ourselves must look inward and learn how to lead ourselves and ultimately ... Free Essays on Jesus’ Practices In The Business World Free Essays on Jesus’ Practices In The Business World One might think that it would almost be impossible to follow Jesus’ practices in this day and age. There couldn’t possibly be anything that Jesus taught over 2,000 years ago that could be applied in the business world. This is untrue. There are several aspects of Jesus’ teaching that are very applicable in these modern times. We will examine three separate chapters from one of Charles C. Manz’s books, â€Å"The Leadership Wisdom of Jesus: Practical Lessons for Today†, and see how they can be used in everyday business. The first is â€Å"Logs Before Specks, or Lead Thyself First†. The following passage was an important lesson Jesus was trying to teach his followers on how to look within themselves and not judge others before we judge ourselves. â€Å"Do not judge, or you too will be judged? For in the same way you judge other, you will be judged, and with the measure you use, it will be measured to you. Why do you look at the speck of sawdust in your brother’s eye and pay no attention to the plank in your own eye? How can you say to your brother, ‘Let me take that speck out of your eye,’ when all the time there is a plank in your eye? You hypocrite, first take the plank out of your own eye, and then you will see clearly to remove the speck from your brother’s eye†. (Matthew 7:1-5; New International Version). Often times we try to point out other’s shortcomings, their sawdust, when we ourselves have much larger problems, the planks. We are bli nded by the gratification by tearing down others and showing them their problems, when oftentimes our own lives are in dire need of examination. Once we have removed the planks-or problems-from our own lives we can effectively help other’s solve their own problems in a caring and compassionate way. We help facilitate others to find the answers they were looking for by modeling to them that we ourselves must look inward and learn how to lead ourselves and ultimately ...

Critically examine a period of strategic change for an organisation of Essay

Critically examine a period of strategic change for an organisation of your own choice. Outline the triggers for change and the - Essay Example 7 Triggers to this change †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8 2- Product Differentiation as a strategic change †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8 Triggers to this change †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9 3- Retail-marketing/ Own-store retailing as a strategic change †¦ 10 Triggers to this change †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 11 Significant organizational issues facing the managers in strategic change .. 12 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 13 References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 14 Introduction In the light of large-scale changes facing the world around the business, organizations require to undergo strategic changes and strategic re-orientations. Both the external and internal environments of a business face tremendous changes day by day, mainly due to technological advances, varying customer requirements, differences in marketing trends etc, and in order the business to survive in this challenging environment, it is highly important that business must be accustomed with the environments through the strategic change possible. For management, there are quite a large number of strategies to help the business achieve its specific or common goals. Out of these strategies, change itself is a strategy as it is, though a challenge to get it successfully implemented, an opportunity for the business. Apple Inc with the leadership of Steve Jobs has emerged to be an organization that prospered a number of strategic changes l ike retail-marketing, innovative product design, product differentiation etc. This piece of research paper is an attempt to address the strategic change from both literature perspectives as well as empirical evidences from Apple’s strategic change. This paper outlines how Apple Inc has managed strategic change at various situations and how it could successfully implemented changes like launching of its retail-marketing. Apple Inc: An overview Apple Inc, one of the most successful technology companies of today, has been established by Steve Jobs, Ronald Wayne and Steve Wozniak in early 1970. It’s startup story itself is amazingly interesting as it is closely linked to one-off hobby machine that an outstanding talented electronic wiz, Steve Jobs, made for himself and this has later become the core of the most successful companies of today (O'Grady 2008, p. 1). Apple Inc is a multinational company, headquartered in California, that designs, develops, and markets personal computers, servers, communication devices like cell-phones, portable music digital players and related accessories (Datamonitor 2010). The company has always been thriving on innovation and continuous changes. It ignited personal computer revolution in early 1990s with the development of Apple- II. The company thus went through a number of strategic changes in production, technology, marketing, innovation and so on. It later reinvented the personal computer within the next few years by the development of Macintosh. Macintosh and its another development called iMac gave the company deeply routed brand loyalty (Kerin, Hartley and Berkowitz, 2005, p. 395). In recent years, Apple found hidden marketing opportunities, that were until then explored by none, for digital music players, music software, iPhone, 3G iPhone etc and revolutionized its markets through effective distribution with

Digital Intellectual Property Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Digital Intellectual Property - Essay Example If that source code—or the idea behind the software—is not available to the public, then the software is â€Å"closed source† (Anderson, 2004). In the case of open source software, the opposite is true. The source code is available to the public and can be altered by the public without a violation of the license. Thus, software can range between having its source code completely blocked off from the public, to software where the source code is read-only to the public, to software where the source code is open to the world and alterable (Richard, 2003). This issue of making software â€Å"open source† and freely available to all to change creates some ethical problems in the era of rapid transfer of files over the internet. There are a number of avenues to use when analyzing any ethical issue. Perhaps the most common method in academic philosophy is a utilitarian perspective. Built on the concern that any action should maximize the happiness of society as a whole, utilitarianism would not be able to answer the question of whether open source software is ethical. Many of those questions, such as â€Å"is human knowledge advanced by full and free access to all information?†, are unanswered and reflect larger discussions about intellectual property protection (Ravitch, 2010). ... With respect to rights, the matter hinges upon the existence of individuals’ rights to their intellectual property, which is a guaranteed offered under United States federal law. According to the philosophy of the GNU Operating System distributors, â€Å"‘Free software’ is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should think of ‘free’ as in ‘free speech,’ not as in ‘free beer.’† (GNU Webmasters, 2009). When compared to the right to free speech, the comparison invites further questions about whether the two are truly comparable, or even similar, in nature. Beyond the rights issue, there is also the virtue perspective, in which some have argued that open source helps people think and learn as they share useful knowledge, therefore contributing to the well-being and human flourishing of all. Sharing this knowledge is, to some, â€Å"a fundamental act of friendship† (Ravitch, 2010). However, t o others, this knowledge only came about through effort and time, which therefore gives it some monetary value. Therefore, the argument could be made that open source software is encouraging the virtues of thieves, not friends. Again, another perspective on ethics raises more questions than it answers. Finally, the common good perspective on open source is optimistic about the potential for good done to the whole of humanity. According to the Catholic Church, â€Å"cyberspace ought to be a resource of comprehensive information and services available without charge to all, and in a wide range of languages† (Foley & Pastore, 2002). Although this kind of view depends on accepting some of the other ethical tenants of the Church, this perspective is valuable in

Should Corrections Be Date and Time Stamped Essay Example for Free

Should Corrections Be Date and Time Stamped Essay 1.Should corrections be date and time stamped? According to the American Medical Association, all medical records should be date and time stamped and should identify the corrector or the person that is making any changes of any sort. First, the individual making the correction needs to identify him or herself as having authorization to do so. Secondly, any corrections need to contain the date and time they took place so that if any questions were to arise they may be better referenced. Finally, all changes to a patient’s medical record must contain a list of people to notify of the changes. All of these steps are necessary without exception to protect the accuracy of a patient’s medical record. 2.When should a patient be advised of the existence of computerized databases containing medical information about the patient? A patient must understand how their medical records are being maintained. This is very important for confidentiality. Patients need to stay advised of the existence of computerized databases that contain their medical records before the records transfer to the staff entering them into the database. The patient is also to be advised as to whom will maintain their records and who will and will not have access to their medical records. Any person able to access the patient’s record through the computerized database needs to be identified to the patient before the records become part of the system. These steps are to ensure the patient that the right measures are being taken to keep their records confidential.

Causes and Effects of Drunk Driving Essay -- Drinking Driving DUI DWI

Cause and Effect Essay on: Drunk Driving Driving a vehicle while under the influence of alcohol is one of the most dangerous things you can do. There is a mass of research evidence to show that driving performance and reaction times are seriously affected by alcohol. Our law in Georgia states, â€Å"that it is illegal to operate a motor vehicle if your blood alcohol concentration (BAC) exceeds .10%. Georgia observes a "per se" law. (Craft) If you drink and drive, you are not only a danger to yourself but also to your passenger, other road users and pedestrians. In fact, every 30 minutes, someone in this country dies in alcohol-related crash. Every 30 minutes! And last year alone more than one million people are injured in alcohol-related traffic crashes. Alcohol is a depressant that slows down body reactions and the working of the brain. Each year drunk driving is responsible for about 25% of these deaths. The risks of drinking are alcohol-related accidents and violence. The effects of alcohol are poor coordination and slurred speech, double vision, decrease of self-control loss of consciousness and death. There are legal consequences due to drinking also. The more a person drinks, the more their ability to make important decisions becomes impaired. After just one drink, a driver can lose their ability to perform the tasks necessary to drive a car. At a certain point, a driver will become illegally intoxicated and can be arrested for attempting to operate a moto...

Interview Question and Ans

Tell me about yourself? Ans1) My name is Sakshi Malhotra. I am from Faridabad. I have done my graduation degree in BBA from MD University, Rohtak. I am currently pursuing PGDM degree from IMS college. Apart from the academic interests I am a creative person. Q2) What is your greatest strength? Weakness? Ans2) (i) Strengths: * Good communication skills * Strong will power * Dedicated nature. (ii) Weakness: * I cannot tolerate back biting. I may easily lose temper if I come across dishonest people. Q3) Why did you choose to interview with us?Ans3) I chose to interview with you because the job profile fits ideally with the kind of work experience that I am looking forward to. This is the firm in which I can realize my full potential and gain quality experience in my professional life. Q4) What are your short-term and long term goals? Ans4) (i) Short –Term Career Goals: To work in any of the four competitors –KPMG, E & Y, PWC, DELLOITE (ii) Long Term Goal: Long-Term Goa l of mine is to broaden my experience in different departments and work processes of the industry so that I can become qualified enough to lead a company as the CEO.Q5) Describe a time you had to make a difficult decision? Ans5) The most difficult decision I had to make so far was to choose between a career in Hotel Management and a career in management. With the help of my family I decided to choose a career in management as it will still fulfill my dream of managing and I also get to choose the industry I want to work in. Q6) What do you do when a team member is not pulling his/her weight? Ans6) When a team- member is not pulling his/her weight then I will try to find out the reason for the de motivated behavior of the team member.If a can resolve the issue then I will put my efforts in that direction else if I cannot find the reason then I will try to lead by example by putting extra efforts and involving the team member. Q7) Think about a time you made a mistake. What did you le arn from it? Ans7) The mistake that I made was very trivial and hence not worth mentioning here but the lesson that I learnt was much more important. I learnt that it is always easier and better to admit your mistake and apologize for it. Trying to hide the mistake is just another mistake.

Leading as a principle of management

Andy Grove, Intel’s former legendary leader who oversaw this company in the time of its rising to its prominent position, has a remarkable leadership style. His style is really democratic, but forceful and demanding. As a result, a unique culture of â€Å"constructive confrontation† arose at the company that is a direct result of Grove’s managerial traits (Intel Corporation). He allowed his subordinates to insist on their views and arguments at the time of the discussion, but once a decision was reached, everybody was expected to demonstrate the highest level of commitment.As a leader, Grove is remarkable for several major traits that make him stand out from other leaders. First, he is superb in his skill to â€Å"align strategy and execution as the forces of globalization were creating enormous discontinuities in the business environment† (Garten 2005). He was always on the alert for whatever actions the competitors might take to challenge Intel’s dominance and kept a hold on the treacherous IT business environment. Managing the external environment of the business is an important skill that does not come easily to leaders; it takes years of experience and a highly focused personality able to keep an eye on what’s going on in the marketplace.In relationships with employees, Grove excelled in striking an important balance between disciplinary action and support of initiative. In giving his employees freedom to act, he maintained their zest for innovation that can only flourish in a democratically arranged corporate environment. At the same time, Grove maintained rigid discipline in terms of performance evaluation. He demanded measurement of every detail of the performance and was relentless in his requirements. The company executives introduced the so-called â€Å"management by objectives† in which an employee’s performance is evaluated against about 10 objectives all of which are gauged with quantifiable measures (Intel Corporation).Grove can also be applauded for his ability to preserve the flexibility in Intel’s operations at the time when the company was experiencing dramatic growth. Sheer size is often the problem for major corporations who lose market to more nimble competitors. Grove created a company that remains highly adaptable despite its mammoth proportions. Grove also built Intel’s corporate culture on values that have turned it into â€Å"very strong immune system† (Pandya et al. 2004).Grove is the kind of leader who does not get depressed in the tough times and continues to see the silver lining even in the times of a serious recession. In an interview with Business Week reporter he advocates the sizzling future of the tech industry despite temporary difficulties, insisting that â€Å"we can't even glimpse the potential† of the IT industry, even in the aftermath of the tech bubble and the general downturn in the business (Andy Grove: We canà ¢â‚¬â„¢t†¦).Grove’s optimism stems from his ability to manage change at the company. A particular instance of change at Intel involves the switch from memory chips to microprocessors in the 1980s. The field was entirely new for Intel, and yet the company emerged with dazzling success, turning into the global leader. Another example relates to the large-scale recall of Pentium chips after problems with their functioning surfaced in 1994. Andy Grove dealt with the issue with efficiency and initiative that worked to save the company’s damaged reputation. Andy Grove led the company towards success in the market for microprocessors and was able â€Å"to build the Intel brand (through the famous â€Å"Intel Inside† campaign) and used his savvy in managing risk to steer the company clear of antitrust regulators† (Pandya et al. 2004).Andy Grove spent an impressive 11 years as chief executive officer at Intel, continuing his leadership stance as chairman. Fin ancial data confirm the success of his leadership style and his ability to manage the company, taking it to a level of state-of-the-art perfection. A 31.6% annual rise in stock price, twice the speed of S&P 500, growth in revenues from $1.9 billion to $25.1 billion, doubling of the workforce to 64,000 people demonstrate the achievements of Andy Grove as a leader (Garten 2005).These are only dry numbers, and the main breakthrough was qualitative. Intel has been fully transformed into a leader of the global IT industry. First, it has become a truly international corporation, deriving a major portion of its revenues from abroad. Second, the corporation â€Å"became central to the growth of personal computers, cell phones, genomic research, computer-aided design, and virtually everything else that characterizes this age of digitalization and the Internet† (Garten 2005). Intel succeeded in a highly competitive environment of the IT industry, becoming an icon of success for many be ginning companies. Intel’s name is a brand worth millions of dollars, and its products like Pentium chips remain the symbol of the industry.Andy Grove has done a lot to translate his convictions for the board operation into real changes in its work. It took Grove six years to â€Å"make Intel's board exemplary† (Shlender 2004). In his own words, he highly evaluates his role â€Å"in developing the work environment and culture at the company and with the directors† (Shlender 2004). Andy Grove firmly believed in the independence of the board and the separation of the functions of the CEO and chairman. He put his burning conviction that the board should have an important role in making the good governance principles work in his books and lectures on the topic. His work as Chairman of the Board has made Intel’s board a reliable safeguard against management’s sloppy or immoral actions.Thus, Andy Grove was a great leader able to combine rigor with attent ion to others’ opinion and balance between giving his subordinates freedom to innovate, combined with the need to commit to the already taken decisions. His emphasis on discipline, strategic vision for growth, handle on the market and ability to manage change account for his personal success as a leader and impressive performance of Intel Corporation.BibliographyAndy Grove `We can`t even glimpse the potential`. Business Week 3846, Aug 25, 2003. 19 Sep. 05 .Garten, Jeffery E. â€Å"Andy Grove Made The Elephant Dance†. Business Week 3928, April 2005. 19 Sep. 05 .Intel Corporation: The Evolution of an Adaptive Organization. 19 Sep. 05 .Pandya, Mukul, et al. Best of the Best: Inside Andy Grove's Leadership at Intel. Prentice Hall PTR, Dec 10, 2004. 19 Sep. 05 .Schlender, Brent. `Inside Andy Grove`s Latest Crusade` Fortune 150.4, Aug 23, 2004. 19 Sep. 05 < http://www.fortune.com/fortune/ceo/articles/0,15114,678520,00.html>.

How to Write Business Papers in College

How to Write Business Papers in College Writing business papers in college can be a daunting assignment especially when it comes to choosing a research paper topic. It is stressful if you have a lot of good ideas making it difficult to choose one. Lengthy business papers for college require students to be comfortable with research on the chosen paper topic. College business papers have to be based on academic ground, the course that you are pursuing and the methods you are advised to use. A wide research paper topic will surely make you lose track of writing directions easily. It is better to choose a more specific topic and, preferably, with the help of your tutor. Narrowing down the topic will help you perform a more structured and deep research. Writing a business paper requires you to introduce new concepts, analyze existing research work and discuss the current practices as per the chosen topic. Having new perspectives requires one to be thoroughly exposed on the contemporary issues that affect the business world. Business goes hand in hand with politics and policies. Attributes such as international agreements and lawsuits add weight on the concepts already discussed. While writing a business paper, it is important to narrow down the subjects into a manageable theme that consist of three to four points. You have to perform research concerning these points and discuss your findings with the readers in you business paper. While writing business papers, it is important to let the audience recognize the main purpose why the paper was developed. Business papers convey useful information not only to the examiner but also to the general public. Use of heavy business jargon should be avoided since business papers are intended for broad readership. Even though it is difficult to locate authoritative sources in business, students who use peer reviewed articles and journals have in-depth analysis of thesis statements. College papers are intended for research hence students must present their competencies in doing business papers. You should not rely on the Internet solely, do not avoid the library since some authoritative business journals can be found there. Referencing and citing college business papers is an important aspect that students are expected to practice whenever they develop their academic papers. If all this seems too complex for you, you can always contact our writing service and order a sample paper, that will help you see all the peculiarities of business paper writing (or any kind of academic writing, for that matter). It is very simple to ask for help, just fill in the order form and pay for the paper. We will assign a competent writer to your order, who will deliver high quality work.

Domestication History of Squashes (Cucurbita spp)

Domestication History of Squashes (Cucurbita spp) Squash (genus Cucurbita), including squashes, pumpkins, and gourds, is one of the earliest and most important of plants domesticated in the Americas, along with maize and common bean. The genus includes 12-14 species, at least five of which were domesticated independently, long before European contact in South America, Mesoamerica, and Eastern North America. Five Main Species The designation cal BP means, roughly, calendar years ago before the present. Data in this table has been assembled from a variety of available sources, listed in the bibliography for this article. Name Common Name Location Date Progenitor C. pepo spp pepo pumpkins, zucchini Mesoamerica 10,000 cal BP C. pepo. spp fraterna C. moschata butternut squash Mesoamerica or northern South America 10,000 cal BP C. pepo spp fraterna C. pepo spp. ovifera summer squashes, acorns Eastern North America 5000 cal BP C. pepo spp ozarkana C. argyrosperma silver-seeded gourd, green-striped cushaw Mesoamerica 5000 cal BP C. argyrosperma spp sororia C. ficifolia fig-leafed gourd Mesoamerica or Andean South America 5000 cal BP unknown C. maxima buttercup, banana, Lakota, Hubbard, Harrahdale pumpkins South America 4000 cal BP C. maxima spp adreana Why Would Anybody Domesticate Gourds? Wild forms of squashes are harshly bitter to humans and other extant mammals, but there is evidence that they were harmless to mastodons, the extinct form of elephant. Wild squashes carry cucurbitacins, which can be toxic when eaten by smaller bodied mammals, including humans. Large-bodied mammals would need to ingest a huge amount to have an equivalent dose (75-230 whole fruits at once). Interestingly, when the megafauna died off at the end of the last Ice Age, wild Cucurbita declined. The last mammoths in the Americas died off about 10,000 years ago, around the same time squashes were domesticated. See Kistler et al. for a discussion. Archaeological understanding of squash domestication process  has undergone a considerable rethinking: most domestication processes have been found to have taken centuries if not millennia to complete. In comparison, squash domestication was fairly abrupt. Domestication was likely in part the result of human selection for different traits related to edibility, as well as seed size and rind thickness. It has also been suggested that domestication may have been directed by the practicality of dried gourds as containers or fishing weights. Bees and Gourds Evidence suggests that cucurbit ecology is tightly bound up with one of its pollinators, several varieties of an American stingless bee known as Peponapis or the gourd bee. Ecological evidence (Giannini et al.) identified a co-occurrence of specific types of cucurbit with specifics type of Peponapis  in three distinct geographic clusters. Cluster A is in the Mojave, Sonoran and Chihuahan deserts (including P. pruinosa); B in the moist forests of the Yucatan peninsula and C in the Sinaloa dry forests. Peponapis bees may well be crucial to understanding the spread of domesticated squash in the Americas, because bees apparently followed the human movement of cultivated squashes into new territories. Lopez-Uribe et al. (2016) studied and identified molecular markers of the bee P. pruinosa in bee populations throughout North America. P. pruinosa today prefers the wild host C. foetidissima, but when that is not available, it relies on domesticated host plants, C. pepo, C. moschata and C. maxima, for pollen. The distribution of these markers suggests that modern squash bee populations are the result of a massive range expansion from out of Mesoamerica into the temperate regions of North America. Their findings suggest that the bee colonized eastern NA after C. pepo was domesticated there, the first and only known case of a pollinators range expanding with the spread of a domesticated plant. South America Microbotanical remains from squash plants such as starch grains and phytoliths, as well as macro-botanical remains such as seeds, pedicles, and rinds, have been found representing C. moschata squash and bottle gourd in numerous sites throughout northern South American and Panama by 10,200-7600 cal BP, underlining their probable South American origins earlier than that. Phytoliths large enough to represent domesticated squash have been found at sites in Ecuador 10,000-7,000 years BP and the Colombian Amazon (9300-8000 BP). Squash seeds of Cucurbita moschata have been recovered from sites in the Nanchoc valley on the lower western slopes of Peru, as were early cotton, peanut, and quinoa. Two squash seeds from the floors of houses were direct-dated, one 10,403–10,163 cal BP and one 8535-8342 cal BP. In the Zaà ±a valley of Peru, C. moschata rinds dated to 10,402-10,253 cal BP, alongside early evidence of cotton, manioc and coca. C. ficifolia was discovered in southern coastal Peru at Paloma, dated between 5900-5740 cal BP; other squash evidence that has not been identified to species include Chilca 1, in southern coastal Peru (5400 cal BP and Los Ajos in southeastern Uruguay, 4800-4540 cal BP. Mesoamerican Squashes The earliest archaeological evidence for C. pepo squash in Mesoamerica comes from excavations carried out during the 1950s and 1960s in five caves in Mexico: Guil Naquitz in Oaxaca state, Coxcatln and San Marco caves in Puebla and Romero’s and Valenzuela’s caves in Tamaulipas. Pepo squash seeds, fruit rind fragments, and stems have been radiocarbon dated to 10,000 years BP, including both direct dating of the seeds and indirect dating of the site levels in which they were found. This analysis allowed also to trace the dispersion of the plant between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago from south to north, specifically, from Oaxaca and southwestern Mexico toward Northern Mexico and the southwestern United States. Xihuatoxtla rockshelter, in tropical Guerrero state, contained phytoliths of what may be C. argyrosperma, in association with radiocarbon dated levels of 7920/- 40 RCYBP, indicating that domesticated squash was available between 8990-8610 cal BP. Eastern North America In the United States, early evidence of initial domestication of Pepo squash comes from different sites from the central midwest and the east from Florida to Maine. This was a subspecies of Cucurbita pepo called Cucurbita pepo ovifera and its wild ancestor, the inedible Ozark gourd, is still present in the area. This plant formed part of the dietary complex known as the Eastern North American Neolithic, which also included chenopodium and sunflower. The earliest use of squash is from the Koster site  in Illinois, ca. 8000 years BP; the earliest domesticated squash in the midwest comes from Phillips Spring, Missouri, about 5,000 years ago.   Sources Dillehay TD, Rossen J, Andres TC, and Williams DE. 2007. Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru. Science 316:1890-1893.Fuller DQ, Denham T, Arroyo-Kalin M, Lucas L, Stevens CJ, Qin L, Allaby RG, and Purugganan MD. 2014. Convergent evolution and parallelism in plant domestication revealed by an expanding archaeological record. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(17):6147-6152.Giannini TC, Lira-Saade R, Ayala R, Saraiva AM, and Alves-dos-Santos I. 2011. Ecological niche similarities of Peponapis bees and non-domesticated Cucurbita species. Ecological Modelling 222(12):2011-2018.Hart JP, Brumbach HJ, and Lusteck R. 2007. Extending the Phytolith Evidence for Early Maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) and Squash (Cucurbita sp.) in Central New York. American Antiquity 72(3):563-584.Kistler L, Newsom LA, Ryan TM, Clarke AC, Smith BD, and Perry GH. 2015. Gourds and squashes (Cucurbita spp.) adapted to megafaunal extinction and ecological anachronism through domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112(49):15107-15112. Lira R, Eguiarte L, Montes S, Zizumbo-Villarreal D, Marà ­n PC-G, and Quesada M. 2016. Homo sapiens–Cucurbita interaction in Mesoamerica: Domestication, Dissemination, and Diversification. In: Lira R, Casas A, and Blancas J, editors. Ethnobotany of Mexico: Interactions of People and Plants in Mesoamerica. New York, NY: Springer New York. p 389-401.Là ³pez-Uribe MM, Cane JH, Minckley RL, and Danforth BN. 2016. Crop domestication facilitated rapid geographical expansion of a specialist pollinator, the squash bee Peponapis pruinosa. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 283(1833).Patton PE, and Curran S. 2016. Archaic Period Domesticated Plants in the Mid-Ohio Valley: Archaeobotanical Remains from the County Home Site (33at40), Southeastern Ohio. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 41(2):127-158.Piperno DR. 2011. The Origins of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Patterns, Process, and New Developments. Current Anthropolog y 52(S4):S453-S470. Piperno DR. 2016. Phytolith radiocarbon dating in archaeological and paleoecological research: a case study of phytoliths from modern Neotropical plants and a review of the previous dating evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science 68:54-61.Ranere AJ, Piperno DR, Holst I, Dickau R, and Iriarte J. 2009. The cultural and chronological context of early Holocene maize and squash domestication in the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:5014-5018.Sanjur OI, Piperno DR, Andres TC, and Wessel-Beaver L. 2002. Phylogenetic relationships among domesticated and wild species of Cucurbita (Cucurbitaceae) inferred from a mitochondrial gene: Implications for crop plant evolution and areas of origin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99(1):535-540.Simon ML. 2011. Evidence for variability among squash seeds from the Hoxie site (11CK4), Illinois. Journal of Archaeological Science 38(9):2079-2093.Smith BD. 2011. The Cultural Context of Plant Domestication in Eastern North America. Current Anthropology 52(S4):S471-S484. Smith BD. 2006. Eastern North America as an independent center of plant domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103(33):12223-12228.Zheng Y-H, Alverson AJ, Wang Q-F, and Palmer JD. 2013. Chloroplast phylogeny of Cucurbita: Evolution of the domesticated and wild species. Journal of Systematics and Evolution 51(3):326-334.

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